The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and philosophical movement that profoundly influenced Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.^[1] The Enlightenment stressed rationality, skepticism, and liberty and was anti-authoritarian and unconventional, something theology and royal absolutism could not tolerate. The Enlightenment was marked by the profound contributions of philosophers and intellectuals such as John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant.1 These individuals played a pivotal role in the emergence and dissemination of Enlightenment knowledge. The ideas from these philosophers, rooted in the principles of liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutionalism, and anti-clericalism, continue to shape our understanding of this era.^[2]

The Enlightenment transcended geographical boundaries. The era was particularly vibrant in France, England, Scotland, Germany, and the American colonies, each region contributing its unique perspective to the intellectual discourse. The Enlightenment laid the groundwork for significant events, including the American and French Revolutions, which were deeply influenced by its ideals from the late 17th century to the late 18th century.^[3] Enlightenment stemmed from periods like the Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance, which had already started setting roots to transit from the traditional structures and revolutionize the thinking process. Intricate webs of print culture and the public circulation of books and pamphlets engaging with Enlightenment ideas were particularly pivotal.

The three hallmarks of the Enlightenment were reason, individualism, and skepticism.^[4] Reason was heralded as the supreme authority during this period. The Enlightenment efficiently achieved a socially just and forward-looking state in the face of supernatural and divine precepts. Reason, as a trait, is evident in Isaac Newton's works, where his Principia Mathematica predicts how rationalism could unveil the laws governing the natural world, especially in science and philosophy.^[5] Reason was selected because it was among the key factors that led the Enlightenment to rebel against conventional authority and argue for thinking.

Another prominent feature of the Enlightenment was individualism. Most Enlightenment philosophers focused on individualism and individual rights. Philosophers claimed that people should not be confined in their thinking, utterances, and actions by others but should instead do what they want to do freely and exercise their rationality.^[6]John Locke is a perfect example of this emphasis, as his ideas of natural rights and government based on consent became widely regarded as foundational to liberalism.^[7] Smith introduced a concept of what would later form the principles of modern democracy on the issues of life, liberty, and property. Individualism was selected because it defines how the two pillars of modern democracy, America and France, were built based on this principle of freedom, as stated in the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Skepticism became unpopular during the Enlightenment period through questioning and rejection of authorities. The Enlightenment social contract theorists considered shifting their authority from the church to the king. Theorists stood for equality, where the power belonged to the society and should be resolved through reason, not customs or heredity. Another example of Voltaire’s skepticism was his critical words on the Roman Catholic Church and his advocacy for freedom of religion.^[8] Voltaire influenced the audience by suggesting that they should disobey the norms of institutions and through his works.^[9] Skepticism of authority was selected because it embodies the critical spirit of the Enlightenment regarding traditional power relations and the potential of this movement to generate revolutionary concepts.

1.Colby, Charles William, ed. Selections from the Sources of English History: Being a Supplement to Text-books of English History BC 55-AD 1832. Longman, Green, & Company, 1899. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1670coffee.asp ↑
2.Colby. ↑
3.Colby. ↑
4.Sherman, Anita Gilman. Skepticism in Early Modern English Literature. Cambridge University Press, 2021. ↑
5.Force, James E., and Richard Henry Popkin. Essays on the context, nature, and Influence of Isaac Newton’s Theology. No. 129. Springer Science & Business Media, 1990. ↑
6.Force and Richard. ↑
7.Locke, John. "A letter concerning toleration (1689)." Treatise of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration (1983). https://www.let.rug.nl/usa/documents/1651-1700/john-locke-letter-concerning-toleration-1689.php ↑
8.Descartes, René, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Hobbes. French and English Philosophers: Descartes, Rousseau, Voltaire, Hobbes; with Introductions and Notes. Vol. 34. PF Collier, 1910. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1778voltaire-lettres.asp ↑
9.Descartes et al. ↑